Top Picks: Religious Terrorism
By Peter Nasuti on 09 September 2005
The nature of dialogue presupposes that the two sides will give each other a fair hearing. However, in some cases, a moral stance requires one to reject altogether the opposing position. For the person of faith in these instances, does this then necessitate a total break with one's antagonists? Or is there value in continuing to engage with and understand the other side, while at the same time maintaining one's beliefs?
The following books deal with one such issue, religious terrorism. Not content to simply condemn terrorists as psychopaths, the authors look to find the root causes of such extreme behavior. Drawing on their own academic disciplines of history, religious studies, national security, and sociology, they illuminate factors that turn normal, rational humans into fanatical supporters of hateful ideologies. The first two books deal specifically with Islamic terrorism, whereas the latter two expand their reach to a variety of religions. From their conclusions, a picture emerges of the factors that have given rise to the recent spread of terrorism, as well as the real effect of counter-terrorist policies.
The Crisis of Islam, by Bernard Lewis
Modern Library, 2003
Lewis seeks to place Islamic extremism within the context of historical relations between Muslim society and the outside world. He stresses that, unlike the division between God and Caesar in Christianity, the legalistic structure of Islam places universal religious laws in a position of primacy over specific national ones. For this reason, the idea of a union of all Islamic believers, as epitomized in the ancient caliphate, still resonates strongly among Muslims. Therefore, humiliations suffered in one Islamic culture are keenly felt by those in other areas, and artificially conceived post-colonial nations are not seen as viable alternatives to an Islamic society. This increases the danger of the Muslim world considering itself a part of a "clash of civilizations" with antecedents back to the time of the Crusades.
Because of this, anti-Western, and especially anti-American, sentiment has grown stronger in Islamic society throughout the past two hundred years. As the West, formerly dismissed as inferior to Muslim culture, began to become more prosperous and powerful, many Muslims felt at a loss to understand why this was taking place. Western colonialism only exacerbated the problem. In this situation, Muslim intellectuals began to drift towards themes originating in other extremist revolutionary ideologies, such as fascism and communism. These beliefs led the Islamists to accept the necessity of total struggle against the decadence of the contemporary West. Terrorism flows naturally from such a position.
Events in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Iranian revolution and the defeat of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, seemed to show the power and strength of Islamic radicalism. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, extremist Muslims turned their attention to the West. Every corrupt but pro-Western dictator America supported played right into the hands of radicals wishing to mobilize "righteous opposition." For this reason, Lewis recommends that America break with realpolitik and dictatorial governments that have earned the hatred of their citizens. Instead, it should develop and support non-extremist regional groups that share our beliefs in democracy and human rights.
Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam, by John Esposito
Oxford University Press, 2003
Whereas Lewis focuses on the historical grievances of Muslim society and how they developed into an anti-Western ideology, Esposito studies the attempts to justify terrorism through Islam. He starts by examining the concept of jihad, to which Islamic scholars have given a number of meanings. These range from personal struggle to obey the precepts of Islamic faith to armed resistance against the opponents of Islam. However, traditionally there have been Qur'anic bounds on even the violent forms of jihad, including those that forbid the killing of Muslims, women, and children and the action of suicide.
True revolutionary jihad has only emerged in the 20th century, although it drew on formerly existing trends such as the Wahhabi movement. Its supporters find justification for terrorist action in the position that the ideology of the West is fundamentally hostile to that of Islam. For them, even nominally Muslim leaders that attempt to uphold Western forms of government have shown themselves to be unbelievers at heart. In this case, these people are deemed enemies of Islam, and thus not worthy of the protections found in the Qur'an. Likewise, in this form of radical Islam, those who kill themselves in their struggle for the faith are not considered to have committed the sin of suicide, but rather to have become martyrs for Islam.
Esposito stresses that this ideology is a perversion of Islam. The religion of Islam is not monolithic, but has many different shades, almost all of which condemn terrorism. For this reason, it is imperative that moderate Islamic leaders arise within the Muslim world. However, it is also important that America does not perform actions, such as unconditional support for Israel and disproportionate sanctions against Iraq, which many Muslims see as unfair and a cause for seeking out more radical beliefs.
Terror in the Name of God: Why Religious Militants Kill, by Jessica Stern
Harper Perennial, 2004
Stern attempts to understand the roots of religious violence by talking with terrorists. Her book is a compilation of such conversations, including ones with Kashmiri jihadis, far-right Jewish settlers, and Christian Identity survivalists. These transcripts provide a fascinating overview of common themes among religious terrorists.
The first part of the book looks at the grievances that draw people to religious violence. In some cases, allegiance to the rigid structure of a terrorist group provides a sense of belonging to those who find themselves alienated by modern life. In others, widespread socioeconomic deprivation and the lack of prospects for the future engenders feelings of humiliation, which extremism promises to redress. Sometimes, volatile and unequal demographic mixes in a country, historical injustices, or territorial disputes present the impetus for radical conflict. In all these instances, terrorism occurs as a result of a situation in which issues have been reduced to an "us versus them" struggle.
In the second half of the book, Stern examines the organization and maintenance of terrorist organizations. Lone-wolf terrorists, who are individuals or small groups inspired by radical ideologies but moving largely on their own initiative, commit a significant minority of extremist actions. However, most terrorists are members of organizations, most of which have a charismatic leader who helps to legitimize violence for new members. More developed groups might also offer material incentives for followers to join, such as providing for the families of recruits, as well as networks of support. All these characteristics come to a head in the "ultimate organization," al-Qaeda. In order to combat terrorist groups, American policy will therefore need to find a way to intelligently penetrate their networks while avoiding aggravating the perceived humiliation of the terrorists.
Terror in the Mind of God, by Mark Juergensmeyer
University of California Press, 2003
In a similar vein as Stern, Juergensmeyer performs a close analysis of different terrorist organizations to determine common themes in their practices. In the first half of the book, he surveys an extensive number of extremist groups from Christian, Jewish, Islamic, Sikh, and Buddhist backgrounds. Through interviews and historical information, he looks into the ways they interpret scriptures and teachings as justifications for violence.
The second part of the book, however, is where Juergensmeyer truly shines, as he takes the common traits he finds and uses his training as a sociologist to uncover a shared narrative of radical religious groups. He sees them as founded upon a premise of cosmic war, in which one’s basic identity and dignity is seen as under threat from forces that cannot be deterred by more moderate means. Under such a system, their antagonists become demonized. Participants in extremist organizations then begin to empower themselves through symbolic acts that cut themselves off from the wider community but build up strong bonds with fellow followers. These currents enable them to envision terror as a courageous and affirming method of bringing meaning into their lives. Coverage in the media and increased infamy serves to validate this viewpoint.
Juergensmeyer is savvy about the strength of such appeal. Although the West may want to frighten people from becoming terrorists or attempt to separate religion from politics, these measures are not likely to deter terrorists from their goals, as they do not address the real psychological benefits they gain from their actions. Instead, he recommends that religion itself be used to counteract religious terrorism. The practice of true faith concerns itself with the questions of meaning that the radicals raise, but it does not reject participation in public life. In such a way, it may appeal to potential terrorists in a way that more secular solutions do not.
Last updated 12 January 2009